Robotics, Cyborgs and the blurring between

Man and Machine


Developments and the moral and ethical issues they can cause

Introduction

Robotics, cyborgs and the blurring between man and machine forms the topic to which this article is dedicated. What are we, twenty somethings and children of the Digital Age, awaiting? We are a generation with a childhood during which robotics and cyborgs were still more likely a phenomena from movies like StarWars, Terminator or the Alien trilogy. Over the years we have seen for ourselves how this has changed, not gradually, but with enormous speed. The blurring of man and machine has come a remarkable step closer now people with missing arms and legs have already started to rely on robotic limbs. Today, around 11 million people worldwide have been fitted with artificial body parts like titanium hearts and mechanical hands or legs and this seems just the beginning. This exploratory article seeks to reveal some of the next big steps in this development and questions what moral and ethical issues could arise with further advancement of the use of robotics in the human functioning, as well as with robots acquiring more human characteristics. It is a two-way process, making man and machine come closer together and their boundaries more blurry.

Advancement in technology

Mankind has witnessed advancements in technology during the 20th century more than ever before. We have seen the birth of the telephone, radio, television and as technology advanced we saw the emergence of spaceships, computers, cellular phones and the Internet. Technology has been facilitating change as it advances and in today's society most of the technological gadgets are commonly considered to be a part of who we are. Without them we would feel lost and no longer complete. Technology has made people's lives better in many different ways. Take today's Internet for example; people can now shop online, have conversations online, book tickets online and even do business online. This all thanks to advancements in technology which has saved people time and money that they otherwise would have spent on moving from one place to another to get a task done.

The beneficial effects in healthcare

The other field in which technology has improved the lives of people is in field of healthcare; for example the use of pacemakers to keep a heart functioning and artificial limbs to give people their mobility back. These are one of the progressive developments technology has offered mankind so far. James Geary, author of the book Body Electric, says we are now blurring the line between man and machine like never before and explains how we are more cyborg already than some people think. People whose auditory nerves are severed can now rely on auditory brainstem implants, so called ABIs that send sounds to electrodes located in the hearing center of the brain. But according to Geary also a hands-free headset is as much cyborg as someone outfitted with an ABI. They are what he call bionics, the use of technology to extend, enhance or repair the human body (Geary. J, 2008). With all the wonderful aspects that technology has offered humanity, it also comes with setbacks; for example having no network when you need to make an important phone call, getting the wrong directions from your GPS system, losing all your data when your computer crashes and sudden technical malfunctions of ear, eye or other internal implants which you got accustomed to. These setbacks are very undesirable situations to be in but do belong to people’s everyday reality as well.

 

Former and recent experiments

Advancement in technology does not stop here. Every day new ideas are born and we are looking at a future wherein the line between man and machine is blurred heavily. The idea of cyborgs and the use of robotics has been common in science fiction and although these phenomena have been around for decades it still creates a lot of curiosity and debate. One of the first experiments with cybernetic implants was done in 1998 by Professor Kevin Warwick of Reading University. “This experiment allowed a computer to monitor Kevin Warwick as he moved through halls and offices of the Department of Cybernetics at the University of Reading, using a unique identifying signal emitted by the implanted chip. He could operate doors, lights, heaters and other computers without lifting a finger” (Kevinwarwick.com). In 2002, the professor once again tried to explore the world of merging human and machine by experimenting communication between him and his wife by the use of complex neural transmitters, without the need of verbal communication. Another groundbreaking experience was done in 2005, when a paralyzed man at the age of 25 received a brain implant that could read his thoughts. With the implant he could use his brain to turn TV on and off, change channels and switch off the lights. These kinds of implants are very beneficial to paralyzed people and others who by the use of such inventions can make their lives much easier. Another striking experiment was done at the University of Pittsburgh in 2008 where researchers had trained two monkeys to use robotic arms that they controlled with their own thoughts. Scientists call this a Brain Machine Interface (BMI). They hope it will allow individuals in the future to control artificial limbs by simply making their brains think of their actions. Geary explains that a BMI is a step further than a robotic limb since such prosthetic is not connected to the user's brain, but to still functioning nerves in the human body. A BMI however detours severed human body parts and gives the brain signals to operate artificial limbs (Geary. J, Para. 5, 2008).

 

First signals of resistance

A point of discussion that we can already see taking place is to what extent we should help people repair or enhance with these new developed technologies and how far we should go with the integration of mechanics with the human body. Even though some techniques are already present or will be present in the future, some are of the opinion that we should stay natural as much as possible and that the integration of mechanics or robotics with the human body is against “God's will” or against the principles of nature. Several techniques that are now being developed in labs seem to give humans a higher chance to survive or repair in the future, but people are afraid it won't be all positive. Some movements and activist groups are already worried for what may become reality and have started to protest against possible future scenarios wherein man and machine have become integrated in ways that most would possibly find unethical. The No Verichip Inside Movement for instance protests against a verifiable chip underneath the skin that could be used to track people's movements, invading their privacy (Geary. J, Para. 13, 2008). Developments like these are likely to cause new moral and ethical issues and will without a doubt generate heated debates once we really get there. It will certainly raise questions as to who needs to be chipped and for what reason. This could vary from elderly people with dementia to civillians with a criminal record. Pets like dog puppies and kittens get chipped at the veterinarian already, so why wouldn't human beings be next?

The potential for us humans to become half-robot

That chips will not only enable us to track people, but that they are likely to improve people's performance in the future too becomes clear from the words of futurist Ian Yeoman from the Victoria University. Yeoman says that by the year 2050 rugby won't be played by normal people, but by cyborgs. These cyborgs would be athletes with bionic implants, in-built chips to control their performance. Besides, they would also wear shirts with nanotechnological medicines that could cure little wounds. According to Yeoman this is certainly no science fiction. A lot of technologies to make this reality already exist, Yeoman says. Genetic modification for example could enable us to create perfect babies and already exists in sports like horse-riding. Yeoman explains that little robots, so called nanobots, could get injected in athletes' bodies in the future, making them deliver remarkable sports results that go beyond their human power. Once this gets reality they are no longer 100% human, but half human, half robot (Physorg.com, 2011). To some scientists this is referred to as transhumanism. This will obviously lead to new ethical issues too since it could make people superior over others. If what Yeoman predicts does become reality then it could be questioned if nanobots will stay something for elite sports people only or if governments will misuse such superhuman-technology for making their nations superior over others. A privileged change in the human evolution for specified groups of people only and the separation among mankind this might create seems far from desirable and tolerable. Therefore, just as with overseeing cybercrime, it is likely that the United Nations will branch out its activities in the future to monitor any misuse of suchlike technology.

Intelligent robotics making headway

Whereas mankind itself is integrating more with machines robots are becoming more intelligent and lifelike, making headway to become full-fledged players in our society, alongside human beings. “The market for industrial robots grew rapidly during the 1970s and 1980s, with a peak demand in 1991”. (Shibata. T, 2004). Due to the current recession the sale for industrial robots has gone down. Today robots are used in different capacities and therefore made for different purposes; for industrial, warfare or domestic use. Marshall Brain explains how by as early as 2015 robots will start replacing humans in the workforce. He gives us an example of airline pilots, who are very expensive and whose work is already hugely automated. He predicts that airline companies will invest more in automation in the future and that they will get rid of pilots. This in return will help lowering of the airfare thus making huge profits for airline companies. The question he poses is where all the airline pilots will go to. “The pilots will all adapt by getting jobs at Wall Mart or Target or McDonald's. This sort of thing happens all the time in any capitalistic society” (Brain.M, 2011). Even departmental stores will not be left behind, says Marshall. They will start to use robots to do everyday human tasks from filling the shelves to guiding people around and even having automated checkout counters. This will lead to further loss of jobs and dumping all of the unemployed people in the job market. One would think why not to employ these people in the robot manufacturing industry, but the sad truth is that most of these productions take place in developing nations where labor costs are cheaper than in more developed nations. Domestic robots are widely used in homes nowadays, from cleaning the house, offering entertainment and even securing the house. Eindhoven University of Technology for example has recently started a project known as KSERA (Knowledgeable Service Robots for Aging), which will be used in elderly homes. “It follows patients through the house, learns their habits, watches them closely, gives sound advice, turns the air conditioning up or down a bit, and warns a doctor when the patient is not doing well. In addition, the robot also provides entertainment in the form of the Internet and videos”, (Science Daily, 2010).

The shift to more human roles

According to David Levy's provocative book titled, “Love and Sex with Robots”, robots will soon be fulfilling other rolls than those of industrial labor worker. Levy states that there will soon come a day when people will fall in love with robots and want them as companions, friends, love objects and possibly even partners for sex and marriage (NY Times, 2007). This future which David portrays will be in the mid of this century. Levy also mentions factors why humans fall in love with other humans and explains that if these factors apply to humans they can easily be programmed and become applicable to robots too. “We always fall in love with objects that we possess, for example phones, computers and other gadgets, and this will make it easy for us to fall in love with robots”, says Levy. If you look at today's sex industry, one will notice that people no longer have sex with other people only. The use of sexual toys operated by batteries has become increasingly popular and this concept is no different to using robots for sex. “By 2025 at the latest,” Levy predicts, “artificial-emotion technologies will allow robots to be more emotionally available than the typical American human male”. This notion may sound creepy at this moment, but looking at the rapid evolvement of robots this may become reality sooner than we think. Therefore, scientists have been thinking for some years already what ethical dilemmas intelligent robots can cause and to what laws they should obey in case they will genuinely start participating in our society. Back in the 1940s, Isaac Asimov was already thinking about these problems when he developed his “three law of robotics”. Asimov's first law stated that “a robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.” His second law stated that “a robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.” Finally, his third law stated that “a robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law” (Clarke. R, 2005). As robots do have become more intelligent and even have started to develop emotions questions arise whether robots shouldn't be granted certain rights in the future indeed. In today's political arena debates on animal rights are held already, so one could argue whether this shouldn't be done in the future for robots as well. However, Internet pioneer Jaron Lanier warns for the dangers of widening the moral circle too much. He questions if granting rights more and more to entities besides ourselves will not dilute our sense of our own specialness. According to Dylan Evans, an independent scientist and writer, intelligent answers to moral and legal questions raised by the developments in robotics can only be created when lawyers and ethicists will closely collaborate with engineers and scientists (Evans. D, 2007).

Conclusion

The evolvement in robotics and the integration of man and machine is making headway and has reached a point where we can no longer escape discussing the moral and ethical issues they create. One of the fields in which the development of technique has turned people's lifes upside down is in the field of healthcare, blurring man and machine more and more. The happy few can rely already on robotic limbs and bionics, giving people back mobility, sight and hearing, and slightly turning mankind into cyborgs. Scientists predict a transhuman era and say this is just the beginning. We are looking at a future wherein the line between man and machine is even more blurred, with nanobots enhancing human being's abilities and intelligent robots officially taking over human roles like sex partner, carer or friend. There certainly are risks to all this and it will be task for us human beings to define and get clear our position next to those of robotic entities in the future, as well as to what extent mankind should allow its human body to blur with robotic technologies. One could argue for example that as robots become more intelligent and acquire more human characteristics also robots need to be granted rights in the future. But where do we draw the line? First signals of resistance have started already and more of them are to come. Experts following these trends say the discussion on these issues is best solvable when lawyers and ethicists will start collaborating with engineers and scientists.

Zahra Yussuf and Leon Stooker

International Communication Management

The Hague University




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